Encyclopedia

Protein kinase A protein kinase is a kinase enzyme that modifies other proteins by chemically adding phosphate groups to them (phosphorylation). This usually results in a functional change of the target protein (substrate) by changing enzyme activity, cellular location, or association with other proteins.
Protein kinase C Protein kinase C ('PKC', ) is actually a family of protein kinases consisting of ~10 isozymes. They are divided into three subfamilies: conventional (or classical), novel, and atypical based on their second messenger requirements.
Protein kinase R Protein kinase R (PKR) is activated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and plays a major role in the cellular response to viral infection. PKR contains an N-terminal dsRNA binding domain (dsRBD) and a C-terminal kinase domain.
Protein ligands In biochemistry, a protein ligand is an atom, a molecule or an ion which can bind to a specific site (the binding site) on a protein. Interactions between any protein and its ligands are fundamental and essential for the protein to function properly.
Protein losing enteropathy Protein losing enteropathy refers to any condition of the gastrointestinal tract that results in a net loss of protein from the body. The condition may manifest itself with complications related to protein loss, including edema, or retention of fluid, and ascites, or retention of fluid in the abdomen.
Protein microarray A protein microarray is a piece of glass on which different molecules of protein have been affixed at separate locations in an ordered manner thus forming a microscopic array. These are used to identify protein-protein interactions,to identify the substrates of protein kinases, or to identify the targets of biologically active small molecules.
Protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (usually abbreviated protein NMR) is a field of structural biology in which NMR spectroscopy is used to obtain information about the structure and dynamics of proteins. The field was pioneered by, among others, Kurt WĂĽthrich, who shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002.
Protein pKa calculations In computational biology, protein pKa calculations are used to estimate the pKa values of amino acids as they exist within proteins. These calculations complement the pKa values reported for amino acids in their free state, and are used frequently within the fields of molecular modeling, structural bioinformatics, and computational biology.
Protein precursor A protein precursor is an inactive protein (or peptide) that can be turned into an active form by posttranslational modification. The name of the precursor for a protein is often prefixed by pro or prepro, for example, proinsulin being the precursor for insulin.
Protein purification Protein purification is a series of processes intended to isolate a single type of protein from a complex mixture. Protein purification is vital for the characterisation of the function, structure and interactions of the protein of interest.
Protein sequencing Proteins are found in every cell and are essential to every biological process, protein structure is very complex: determining a protein's structure involves first protein sequencing - determining the amino acid sequences of its constituent peptides; and also determining what conformation it adopts and whether it is complexed with any non-peptide molecules. Discovering the structures and functions of proteins in living organisms is an important tool for understanding cellular processes, and allows drugs that target specific metabolic pathways to be invented more easily.
Protein skimmer A protein skimmer or foam fractionator is a device used mostly in saltwater aquaria to remove organic compounds from the water before they break down into nitrogenous waste. Protein skimming is the only form of filtration that physically removes organic compounds before they begin to decompose, lightening the load on the biological filter and improving the water's redox potential.
Protein sparing Protein sparing is the process of the body utilizing sources for energy other than protein such as fatty tissues, dietary fats and carbohydrates for energy, conserving muscle tissue. The balance between digestible protein (DP) and digestible energy (DE) of the diet is a key factor.
Protein splicing Protein splicing is an intramolecular reaction of a particular protein in which an internal protein segment (called an intein) is removed from a precursor protein with a ligation of C-terminal and N-terminal external proteins (called exteins) on both sides. The splicing junction of the precursor protein is mainly a cysteine or a serine, which are amino acids containing a nucleophilic side chain.
Protein structure Proteins are an important class of biological macromolecules present in all biological organisms, made up of such elements as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. All proteins are polymers of amino acids.
Protein structure prediction Protein structure prediction is one of the most significant technologies pursued by computational structural biology and theoretical chemistry. It has the aim of determining the three-dimensional structure of proteins from their amino acid sequences.
Protein structure prediction software This list of protein structure prediction software summarizes commonly used software tools in protein structure prediction, including homology modeling, protein threading, ab initio methods, and secondary structure prediction.
Protein subcellular localization prediction Most eukaryotic proteins are encoded in the nuclear genome and synthesized in the cytosol, and many need to be further sorted before they reach their final destinations. Proteins must be localized in the same subcellular compartment to cooperate towards a common physiological function.
Protein subunit In structural biology, a protein subunit or subunit protein is a single protein molecule that assembles (or "coassembles") with other protein molecules to form a multimeric or oligomeric protein. Many naturally-occurring proteins and enzymes are multimeric.
Protein S deficiency Protein S deficiency is a disorder associated with increased risk of venous thrombosis. Protein S, a vitamin K-dependent physiological anticoagulant, acts as a nonenzymatic cofactor to activated protein C in the proteolytic degradation of factor Va and factor VIIIa.
Protein targeting Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanisms by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Sorting targets can be the inner space of an organelle, any of several interior membranes, the cell's outer membrane, or its exterior via secretion.
Protein turnover Protein turnover (also known as protein accretion) is the balance between protein synthesis and protein breakdown. More synthesis than breakdown indicates an anabolic state that builds lean tissues, more breakdown than synthesis indicates a catabolic state that burns lean tissues.
Protein tyrosine phosphatase Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are a group of enzymes that remove phosphate groups from from phosphorylated tyrosine residues on proteins. Together with tyrosine kinases, PTPs regulate the phosphorylation state of many important signalling molecules, such as the MAP kinase family.
Protein Z Protein Z is a member of the coagulation cascade, the group of blood proteins that leads to the formation of blood clots. It is vitamin K-dependent, and its functionality is therefore impaired in warfarin therapy.
Protein Z-related protease inhibitor Protein Z-dependent protease inhibitor is a protein circulating in the blood which inhibits factors Xa and XIa of the coagulation cascade. It is a member of the class of the serine protease inhibitors (serpins).
Protein-coated disc Protein-Coated Disc (PCD) is a theoretical optical disc technology currently being developed by Professor V Renugopalakrishnan of Harvard Medical School. PCD would greatly increase storage over Holographic Versatile Disc optical disc systems.
Protein-ligand docking Protein-ligand docking is a molecular modelling technique. The goal of protein-ligand docking is to predict the position and orientation of a ligand (a small molecule) when it is bound to a protein receptor or enzyme.
Protein-protein docking Protein-protein docking is the determination of the molecular structure of complexes formed by two or more proteins without the need for experimental measurement. The study of protein-protein docking was boosted by the rapid increase in available protein structures of the 1990s, and it has now been under intensive research for over a decade.
Protein-protein interaction prediction Protein-protein interaction prediction is a field combining bioinformatics and structural biology in an attempt to identify and catalog interactions between pairs or groups of proteins. Understanding protein-protein interactions is important in investigating intracellular signaling pathways.
Protein:HSD11B1 Protein:HSD11B1 (also known as 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) is an NADPH-dependent enzyme highly expressed in key metabolic tissues including liver, adipose tissue, and the central nervous system. In these tissues, HSD11B1 reduces cortisone to the active hormone cortisol that activates glucocorticoid receptors.
Proteinogenic amino acid Proteinogenic amino acids, also known as standard, normal, or primary amino acids, are those 20 amino acids that are found in proteins and that are coded for in the standard genetic code. Proteinogenic literally means protein building.
Proteinoplast Proteinoplasts (sometimes called proteoplasts, aleuroplasts, and aleuronaplasts) are specialized organelles found only in plant cells. They contain crystalline bodies of protein and can be the sites of enzyme activity involving those proteins.
Proteogenix Proteogenix is a corporation based in Portland, Oregon, United States, that develops and markets biomarker diagnostic tests for the detection of life-threatening pregnancy-related conditions. Proteogenix is currently developing non-invasive protein biomarker screening tests for intra-amniotic infection, premature birth, and Down syndrome, which combined cause 175,000 premature births each year in the United States alone.
Proteomics Proteomics is the large-scale study of protein, particularly their structures and functions. This term was coined to make an analogy with genomics, and while it is often viewed as the "next step", proteomics is much more complicated than genomics.
Proteorhodopsin Proteorhodopsin is a photoactive protein in marine bacterioplanktons. Just like the homologous pigment bacteriorhodopsin found in some archaea, it consists of a transmembrane protein bound to a retinal molecule and functions as a light-driven proton pump.
Proteroglypha Proteroglypha, from the Greek words vaguely meaning 'front grooved'. The term generally refers to a group of venomous snakes which have front of the jaw positioned, fixed fangs that are specially grooved for venom delivery.
Proterosuchia Proterosuchia refers to one of the suborders of Thecodontia; specifically the most primitive and ancestral forms. These were primitive, vaguely crocodile-like, archosaurs that mostly lived during the Early Triassic period.
Proterosuchidae Proterosuchidae (or Chasmatosuchidae) are an early, possibly paraphyletic, assemblage of basal archosauriformes whose fossils are known from the Latest Permian of Russia and the Early Triassic of southern Africa, Russia, China, Australia, and Antarctica. They were slender, medium-sized (about 1.
Proterosuchus A large Triassic reptile equivalent in size to today's Komodo Dragons, Proterosuchus was somewhat of a primitive crocodile, and shared many of their modern features while retaining several of its own unique features such as its long legs, and hooked shaped mouth. This jaw made it near impossible for prey such as Lystrosaurus to escape death once ensnared.
Protest art Protest art refers to the signs, banners, and any other form of creative expression used by activists to convey a particular cause or message. It is a visual action taken by social activists to make a point clear.
Protest cycle Protest cycles (also known as cycles of contention or waves of collective action) refers to the cyclical rise and fall in the social movement activity. Sidney Tarrow (1994) defines the cycle of contention as "a phase of heightened conflict across the social system", with "intensified interactions between challengers and authorities which can end in reform, repression and sometimes revolution".
Protest song A protest song is a song intended to protest perceived problems in society such as injustice, racial discrimination, war, globalization, inflation, social inequalities, incarceration, the Greenhouse effect, the global warming. Protest songs are generally associated with folk music, but in recent times they have come from all genres of music.
Protest Stripper Protest Stripper is a fictional character featured on Damon Wayans' comedy The Underground (TV series). He debuted in the sixth episode, portrayed by actor Vincent Oshana, who was introduced at the end of the fifth episode.
Protestant Cemetery, Rome The Protestant Cemetery (Italian: Cimitero protestante), officially called the Cimitero acattolico ("Non-Catholic Cemetery") and often referred to as the Cimitero degli Inglesi ("English Cemetery") is a cemetery in Rome, located near Porta San Paolo alongside the Pyramid of Cestius, a small-scale Egyptian-style pyramid built in 30 BCE as a tomb and later incorporated into the section of the Aurelian Walls that borders the cemetery. Mediterranean cypress trees and other foliage in the cemetery cause it to mirror the more natural style of cemeteries seen in the lusher regions of northern Europe.
Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation The Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation was chartered by Congress on January 6, 1893 and oversees the Washington National Cathedral and its sister institutions. The Bishop of Washington serves as Chief Executive Officer.
Protestant Church in the Netherlands The Protestant Church in the Netherlands (Dutch: Protestantse Kerk in Nederland, abbreviated PKN) came into being on 2004-05-01 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church (Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk, NHK), the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland, GKN) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). Since 1961 the churches have been going through an organizational process to this end.
Protestant Church of Algeria The Protestant Church of Algeria is a small religious body formed in 1972 by the union of several smaller Protestant denominations in Algeria. The church has about 1,500 members, mainly in the northern coastal region of the country.
Protestant Nationalist A Protestant Nationalist, in the context of the situation in Northern Ireland, is a Protestant supporter of a pro-Irish Nationalist political party, or simply one who would vote to reunify Ireland as a single, political nation state. Virtually all Protestant Nationalists support the more moderate Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP).
Protestant Protective Association The Protestant Protective Association was an anti-Catholic group based in Ontario, Canada, associated with the Orange Order. It campaigned against the rights of Catholics and French-Canadians, and argued that Roman Catholics were attempting to take over Ontario.
Protestant Reformation The Reformation was a movement in the 16th century to reform the Catholic Church in Western Europe. Soon, the reformers split from the Church altogether, founding four major church traditions and dozens of sub-denominations, all of which are considered adherents of "Protestantism".
Protestant Reformed Church of Luxembourg The Protestant Reformed Church of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Protestantesch-Réforméiert Kierch vu Lëtzebuerg, French: Eglise Protestante Réformée du Luxembourg, German: Protestantisch-Reformierte Kirche von Luxembourg) is a Protestant reformed church that operates solely in Luxembourg.
Protestant Reformed Churches in America The Protestant Reformed Churches in America (PRC) or (PRCA) are a denomination of 27 churches and over 7,000 members. They believe that the Bible is the inspired word of God (and only the King James Version is used in their churches) and that the truths are summarized in the Reformed Confessions; the Heidelberg Catechism, the Belgic Confession and the Canons of Dordt.
Protestant Reformers The Protestant Reformers are those theologians, churchmen, and statesmen whose careers, works, and actions brought about the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century. Historically speaking, "Protestant" was the name given to those theologians, magnates, and delegations present at the Holy Roman Imperial Diet of Speyer in 1529 who protested the revocation of the suspension, granted at a prior Diet of Speyer in 1526, of Edict of Worms of 1521, which had outlawed Martin Luther and his followers.
Protestant Unionist Party The Protestant Unionist Party (PUP) was a unionist political party operating in Northern Ireland from 1966 to 1971. It was set up by Ian Paisley, and was the forerunner of the modern Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and emerged from the Ulster Protestant Action (UPA) movement, changing to the PUP in 1966.
Protestant work ethic The Protestant work ethic, or sometimes called the Puritan work ethic, is a Calvinist value emphasizing the necessity of constant labor in a person's calling as a sign of personal salvation. Protestants beginning with Martin Luther had reconceptualised work as a duty in the world for the benefit of the individual and society as a whole.
Protestantenverein The 'Protestantenverein' was a society in Germany the general object of which was to promote the union (Verein) and progress of the various established Protestant Churches of the country in harmony with the advance of culture and on the basis of Christianity.
Protestantism Protestantism (from "protestors") is one of three main groups of Christianity, typically referring to European churches that separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the Renaissance-era Protestant Reformation.
Protestantism by country The following is a list of Protestants by country. For the purposes of this list, "Protestant" includes the following denominations: Assemblies of God, Anglican, Baptist, Church of God, Church of the Nazarene, Churches of Christ, Congregationalist, Calvinist, Episcopalian, Holiness, Lutheran, Mennonite, Methodist, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, Reformed, Seventh-day Adventist, Quaker, "Evangelicals", non-Denominational Protestants, and other Protestants.
Protestantism in Brazil On March 10, 1557, the first Protestant worship service was held in Brazil. Followers of Protestantism are rising in number and if the evangelical Christian movement continues to spread at the pace it has in recent years, statistics suggest that by 2022 Catholics will be a minority in a country that was about 90 percent Catholic in 1980 It is Until 1970, the majority of Brazilian Protestants were the ones of Traditional Churches - Lutheran]s, [[Presbyterians and Baptists mainly - but the Pentecostals have increased largely in numbers since then.
Protestantism in Bulgaria Protestantism in Bulgaria: Protestantism is the fourth largest religious congregation in Bulgaria after Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam and Roman Catholicism. In the census of 2001, a total of 42,308 people declared themselves to be Protestants of different denominations, up from 21,878 in the previous census in 1992.
Protestantism in Luxembourg The practice of Protestantism in Luxembourg is divided across several different churches and denominations. The largest Protestant churches in the Grand Duchy are the Protestant Church of Luxembourg, Protestant Reformed Church of Luxembourg, Evangelical Church in Germany, Church of England, and Protestant Church in the Netherlands.
Protestants in the Philippines Protestant Christianity arrived in the Philippines during the late 19th century and the early 20th century. These christian denominations were introduced mostly by American missionaries at that time, although some were founded locally.
Protestation at Speyer On the 19th April 1529 six FĂĽrsten (princes) and 14 Imperial Free Cities, representing the Protestant minority, petitioned the Reichstag at Speyer against the Reichsacht (Imperial Ban) against Martin Luther, as well as the proscription of his works and teachings, and called for the unhindered spread of evangelical belief.
Protesting the Dixie Chicks Protesting the Dixie Chicks is a documentary by American filmmaker Christopher Fleeger, independently released on DVD in 2006. The film captures the storm of controversy ignited by the remarks of Natalie Maines, lead singer of the Texas pop-country trio the Dixie Chicks.
Protests against Hartz IV reforms The Protests against Hartz IV reforms in Germany were protests against the 2004 Hartz IV reform, which provide for significant cutbacks in social welfare benefits for long-term (over 12 months) unemployed persons.
Protests against the invasion of Afghanistan In 2001, a number of small protests against the invasion of Afghanistan occurred in various cities and college campuses across the United States and other countries in the first days after the start of the US-led invasion of Afghanistan. These protests were mainly peaceful, but larger protests and general strikes occurred in Pakistan.
Protests against the Iraq War There have been considerable protests against the Iraq War in the buildup to and following the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Between 2002 and 2005, protests were held in many cities worldwide, often coordinated to occur simultaneously around the world.
Protests during the EU summit in Gothenburg 2001 The protests during the EU summit in Gothenburg 2001, parts of which are often called the Gothenburg Riots (Göteborgskravallerna in Swedish), took place in the Swedish city of Gothenburg during the three days of the EU summit (the European Council) and EU–US Summit, June 14–16, 2001. The EU Summit focused upon EU enlargement, sustainable development, economic growth and structural reform issues.
Proteus In Greek mythology, Proteus is an early sea-god, one of several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea"See also Nereus and Phorkys, whose name suggests the "first", as protogonos is the "firstborn". He became the son of Poseidon in the Olympian theogony (Odyssey iv.
Proteus (bacterium) Proteus is a genus of Gram-negative Proteobacteria, which includes pathogens responsible for many human urinary tract infections. Proteus species do not ferment lactose, are oxidase negative, and urease positive; some species are motile.
Proteus (comics) Kevin MacTaggert, best known as Proteus and also called Mutant X, is a Marvel Comics character, associated with the X-Men. Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist/co-writer John Byrne, he first appeared in Uncanny X-Men #125 (September 1979), though hints to his character appeared in earlier issues.
Proteus (moon) Proteus (proe'-tee-əs, , Greek Πρωτέας), or Neptune VIII, is the second largest Neptunian moon, and its largest inner satellite. It is named after Proteus, the shape-changing sea god of Greek mythology.
Proteus (WAM-V) The Proteus is an experimental watercraft testbed for the wave adaptive modular vessels technology developed by Ugo Conti's Marine Advanced Research and is the first of her class. Because of its use of four legs connecting the superstructure to the outriggers, the ship has earned the nickname of "The Spider Ship" or "Spider Boat".
Proteus in the Underworld Proteus In The Underworld (1995) is a science fiction novel by Charles Sheffield. The book is set in the same universe as his previous works Proteus Unbound (1989) and Sight of Proteus (1978), although it stands on its own and can be enjoyed regardless of familiarity with Sheffield's other novels.
Protext Protext was a British word processing program, developed by Arnor Ltd, of Peterborough in the decade following 1985. Originally written for the Amstrad CPC464, it was later the sold for the Amstrad PCW series of word processors, the Atari ST, the Acorn Archimedes, the Commodore Amiga and PC.
Prothesis (altar) The Prothesis is the place in the altar in which the Liturgy of Preparation takes place. This is a small table, also known as the Table of Oblation, which is most often placed on the north side of the sanctuary, or in a separate chamber (also called the Prothesis) on the north side of the central apse.
Prothorax The prothorax is the foremost of the three segments in the thorax of an insect, and bears the first pair of legs. Its principal sclerites (exoskeletal plates) are the pronotum (dorsal), the prosternum (ventral), and the propleuron (lateral) on each side.
Prothrombin time The prothrombin time (PT) and its derived measures of prothrombin ratio (PR) and international normalized ratio (INR) are measures of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. They are used to determine the clotting tendency of blood, in the measure of warfarin dosage, liver damage and vitamin K status.
Protic solvent In chemistry any solvent that carries hydrogen attached to oxygen as in a hydroxyl group, nitrogen as in an amine group, or, more generally, any molecular solvent which contains dissociable H+, such as hydrogen fluoride, is called a protic solvent. The molecules of such solvents can donate an H+ (proton).
Protictitherium The Protictitherium were a primitive genus of civet-like hyena, including the earliest species of hyena known, Protictitherium gaillardi. They were small animals with retractable claws, who probably spent the majority of their time in trees, hunting insects and small animals.
Protitanops Protitanops ("Before Titan's Face") was a genus of brontothere that lived during the Eocene, in the Western United States, especially in Death Valley, California, where the best specimens of the species P. curryi have been found.
Protium (computer language) In computer languages, Protium is a universal, symbolic programming language system, based on a systematic a priori analysis of the tasks required for computation. Devised (and developed) by Australian polyhistor Diarmuid Pigott, Protium is polymorphic in type with considerable character flexibility.
Protium (plant) Protium is a small genus of flowering plants in the family Burseraceae, native to northern South America, and to southern Asia from Pakistan east to Vietnam. The genus is closely related to the genus Bursera, and some species are included in it by some authorities.
Protiviti Protiviti is the leading international provider of independent internal audit and business and technology risk consulting services. Protiviti has become recognized worldwide as a top expert in internal audit and risk management, as well as a thought leader in areas that include the complexities and challenges of complying with corporate governance regulations such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.
Proto-Algonquian language Proto-Algonquian (commonly abbreviated PA) is the name given to the posited proto-language of the languages of the Algonquian family. One theory, first put forth by Frank Siebert in 1967, is that it was spoken between 2500 and 3000 years ago between Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario, Ontario, in Canada, and at least as far south as Niagara Falls (determined through examination of the reconstructed terms for natural features, plants, and animals), although this is still debated.
Proto-Baltic language Proto-Baltic is the proto-language of the Baltic branch of the Indo-European languages. It either developed from Proto-Balto-Slavic, or in loose contact with Proto-Slavic, in roughly the area of the modern Baltic States, from the 2nd millennium BC.
Proto-city Proto-city is a term usually used to describe large villages of the Neolithic Period such as Jericho and Catal Huyuk, but also any prehistoric settlement which has both rural and urban features. Predynastic Egypt and Ubaid Sumeria featured what some call proto-cities.
Proto-civilization Proto-civilisation (British spelling) is the transitional state between a society structred as a collection of tribal chieftains, perhaps owing allegience to a paramount chief, and the development of a full urban civilisation, in which people live in a graded herarchy of settlement types perhaps starting with isolated peasant farms, hamlets or small villages, through market towns, to centralised capital cities or ceremonial centres. It is an important stage in the genesis of a civilisation, but historically appears to be an unstable threshold, often reverting back to tribal or chieftain cltures if unable to "progress" to a full blown and semi-stable civilisation.
Proto-Canaanite alphabet The Proto-Canaanite alphabet is an abjad of twenty-plus acrophonic glyphs, which is found in Levantine texts of the Late Bronze Age (from ca. the 15th century), by convention taken to last until a cut-off date of 1050 BC, after which it is called Phoenician.
Proto-Celtic The Proto-Celtic language, also called Common Celtic, is the putative ancestor of all the known Celtic languages. Probably spoken around 800 BC, its lexis can be confidently reconstructed on the basis of the comparative method of historical linguistics.
Proto-Finno-Ugric language Proto-Finno-Ugric is the reconstructed protolanguage for the Finno-Ugric languages, that is the ancestor of the Finnic languages, such as Finnish, and the Ugric languages, whose best known example is Hungarian. The parent language is Proto-Uralic, from which Proto-Finno-Ugric and Proto-Samoyedic had split.
Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic is the assumed common ancestor (proto-language) of all the Germanic languages, which include, among others, modern English and German. As a hypothetical, reconstructed language all knowledge of Proto-Germanic is obtained by application of the comparative method.
Proto-Greek language The Proto-Greek language is the assumed last common ancestor of the Greek dialects, including the Mycenaean language, the classical Greek dialects Attic-Ionic, Aeolic, Doric and North-Western Greek, and ultimately the Koine and Modern Greek. Some scholars would include the fragmentary Ancient Macedonian language, either as descended from an earlier "Proto-Hellenic" language, or by definition including it among the descendants of Proto-Greek.
Proto-Indo-European language The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Indo-European languages. Although the existence of such a language has been accepted by linguists for a long time, there has been debate about many specific details.
Proto-Indo-European religion The existence of similarities among the deities and religious practices of the Indo-European peoples allows glimpses of a common Proto-Indo-European religion and mythology. This hypothetical religion would have been the ancestor of the majority of the religions of pre-Christian Europe, of the Dharmic religions in India, and of Zoroastrianism in Iran.
Proto-Indo-Iranian language Proto-Indo-Iranian, is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are usually connected with the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Kaw Proto-Kaw (proto = early version of) (kaw = Native American word for Kansas) has come around full circle in their music careers and again are performing concerts and recording. Proto-Kaw initially was a renewing of old friendships that has now turned into a robust current progressive rock band.
Proto-Kiranti language Proto-Kiranti is the reconstructed protolanguage of the Kiranti language family, developed largely by Sergei Starostin in the 1980s. The most important consequence of the project, from a grammarian's perspective, has been a better understanding of the verbal morphology of the Kiranti languages.
Proto-Kurdish language The Proto-Kurdish language was a language spoken by Kurdish nomads in the mountains of the Hakkari region south of lake Van and west of Lake Urmia and is considered to be ancestor of the modern Kurdish language.
Proto-Mandarin Proto-Mandarin is a term that can be used to designate any earlier form of the most widely-spoken Chinese dialect, known in English as Mandarin; technically the "late Middle Chinese" of the Song Dynasty. "Early Mandarin" is the common name for the sound system described by the rhyme dictionary Zhōngyuán Yīnyùn (中原音韻, lit.

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